40 terms found
An almond-shaped brain structure in the limbic system that plays a key role in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression. It helps form and store emotional memories.
Developed by John Bowlby, this theory proposes that early bonds between children and their caregivers have a profound impact on social and emotional development throughout life.
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary body functions such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing. Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
A school of psychology founded by John B. Watson that focuses on observable behavior rather than internal mental states. It emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior through…
An integrated approach to understanding health and illness that considers the interplay of biological (genetics, brain chemistry), psychological (thoughts, emotions), and social (culture, relationships) factors.
A region in the left frontal lobe of the brain that is responsible for speech production. Damage to this area results in Broca's aphasia, where a person can understand language…
The thin, wrinkled outer layer of the brain that is responsible for higher-order functions, including thinking, perceiving, planning, and language. It is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and…
A type of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eventually triggering a similar response on its own. The famous example…
The mental discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously. People are motivated to reduce this tension by changing their beliefs or rationalizing their behavior.
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. For example, a dog salivating at the sound of a bell after repeated pairings of the bell with food.
The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. One of the most common cognitive biases.
Unconscious psychological strategies that are used by the ego to protect a person from anxiety and distressing thoughts. First described by Sigmund Freud, examples include repression, denial, projection, and rationalization.
In an experiment, the outcome factor that is measured by the researcher. It is the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
The philosophical view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation rather than innate ideas. It forms the foundation of the scientific method used in psychological research.
The first stage of memory processing, in which information is converted into a form that can be stored in the brain. Types include visual (imagery), acoustic (sound), and semantic (meaning)…
In conditioning, the gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned response. In classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
The body's automatic physiological reaction to a perceived threat is activated by the sympathetic nervous system. It prepares the body to either confront or flee from danger by increasing heart…
A reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where a response is reinforced after a set number of responses. For example, a factory worker paid for every 10 items assembled.
A school of psychology emphasizing that the whole of any experience is greater than the sum of its parts. Gestalt principles describe how we organize visual elements into groups or…
A phenomenon where the desire for group harmony or conformity overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives. Group members suppress dissenting opinions, leading to poor decision-making.
Abraham Maslow's pyramid model of human motivation proposes that basic needs (food, safety) must be met before higher-level needs (belonging, esteem, self-actualization) can be pursued.
A seahorse-shaped structure in the limbic system that is crucial for forming new explicit memories and spatial navigation. Damage to the hippocampus can result in the inability to form new…
In an experiment, the factor that the researcher deliberately manipulates to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It is the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.
The desire to engage in an activity for its own sake — for the pleasure, satisfaction, or challenge it provides — rather than for some external reward like money or…
A condition discovered by Martin Seligman in which a person or animal stops trying to avoid negative situations after repeated exposure to uncontrollable events. Linked to depression and passivity.
The relatively permanent and unlimited storage system of memory. Information can be stored for days, months, or a lifetime. Divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit (procedural) memory.
Neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe the same action performed by another. They are thought to play a role in empathy, imitation,…
The basic building block of the nervous system. A specialized cell that transmits information throughout the body via electrical and chemical signals. Consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an…
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. Examples include serotonin (mood), dopamine (reward), and acetylcholine (muscle movement).
Learning that occurs by watching and imitating others, as described by Albert Bandura. His famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behavior they observe in adults.
A type of learning described by B.F. Skinner in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences — reinforcement increases behavior, while punishment decreases it.
A phenomenon where a person experiences a real improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment with no therapeutic value (like a sugar pill), simply because they believe it will…
In operant conditioning, the addition of a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. For example, giving a dog a treat after…
The front part of the frontal lobe responsible for executive functions including decision-making, planning, personality expression, and moderating social behavior. It is one of the last brain regions to fully…
Any consequence that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behavior. Positive reinforcement adds something desirable; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant.
Rapid Eye Movement sleep — a stage of sleep characterized by fast eye movements, increased brain activity, vivid dreaming, and temporary muscle paralysis. It plays a critical role in memory…
A mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas shape how we perceive the world and can lead to stereotypes when applied too rigidly to social groups.
A famous 1971 study by Philip Zimbardo in which college students were randomly assigned to be "guards" or "prisoners." The study was halted after six days due to the guards'…
The tiny gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of the next. Neurotransmitters are released into this space to transmit signals from one neuron to another.
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning. For example, food is an unconditioned stimulus that naturally causes salivation.
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