AP Psychology · Unit 4
AP Psychology Learning Unit: Classical & Operant Conditioning Terms
The learning unit is where most students lose points to one specific confusion: negative reinforcement versus punishment. They are not the same thing, and the exam knows you might mix them up.
Work through these definitions with the examples attached. Learning terms are almost never tested as bare definitions — they're tested as scenarios you have to classify.
Study tip
Reinforcement always increases behavior; punishment always decreases it. 'Positive' means something was added, 'negative' means something was removed. Two questions, four combinations — that's the whole grid.
22 terms, defined
Classical conditioning
Learning by association: a neutral stimulus becomes linked to a stimulus that already triggers an automatic response.
Example: Feeling hungry the instant you hear a microwave beep.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning.
Example: Food in the mouth causing salivation.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
The unlearned, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Salivating at the taste of food.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing, comes to trigger a learned response.
Example: The bell Pavlov rang before feeding the dogs.
Conditioned response (CR)
The learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
Example: The dog salivating at the bell alone, with no food present.
Acquisition
The initial stage of learning, when the association between two stimuli (or a behavior and a consequence) is first formed.
Example: The first several bell-then-food pairings, before the dog reliably salivates.
Extinction
The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response when the association is no longer reinforced.
Example: The bell ringing repeatedly with no food until the dog stops salivating.
Spontaneous recovery
The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period.
Example: A week after extinction, the dog salivates at the bell again — briefly.
Generalization
Responding the same way to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.
Example: A child afraid of one barking dog becoming afraid of all dogs.
Discrimination
Learning to respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus and not to similar ones.
Example: The dog salivating at Pavlov's bell but not at a doorbell.
Operant conditioning
Learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences.
Example: Taking the same route to work because it has consistently been fastest.
Positive reinforcement
Adding a desirable consequence to increase a behavior.
Example: Giving a dog a treat after it sits.
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant condition to increase a behavior. Still increases behavior — it is not punishment.
Example: Buckling your seatbelt to stop the car's beeping, so you buckle up faster next time.
Positive punishment
Adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease a behavior.
Example: Assigning extra chores after a curfew violation.
Negative punishment
Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior.
Example: Taking away phone privileges for a week.
Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations — steps that get closer and closer to the target behavior.
Example: Rewarding a rat first for facing the lever, then touching it, then pressing it.
Fixed-ratio schedule
Reinforcement delivered after a set number of responses. Produces a high, steady rate of responding.
Example: A coffee shop card that gives a free drink after every 10 purchases.
Variable-ratio schedule
Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. Produces the highest response rate and is the hardest to extinguish.
Example: Slot machines — which is exactly why they're so hard to walk away from.
Fixed-interval schedule
Reinforcement for the first response after a set amount of time. Produces a scalloped pattern of responding.
Example: Studying hard right before each scheduled Friday quiz and barely at all after it.
Variable-interval schedule
Reinforcement for the first response after unpredictable time intervals. Produces slow, steady responding.
Example: Checking your phone for a text that could arrive at any moment.
Observational learning
Learning by watching and imitating others rather than through direct consequences.
Example: Children in Bandura's Bobo doll study hitting the doll after seeing an adult do it.
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but isn't demonstrated until there's a reason to show it.
Example: Rats that wandered a maze with no reward suddenly running it perfectly once food appeared.
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