AP Psychology · Unit 3
AP Psychology Unit 3: Development and Learning Terms
Development and Learning is where most students lose points to one specific confusion: negative reinforcement versus punishment. They are not the same thing.
Work through these definitions with the examples attached. Learning terms are almost never asked as bare definitions — they show up as scenarios you have to classify.
Study tip
Reinforcement always increases behavior; punishment always decreases it. 'Positive' means something was added, 'negative' means something was removed. Two questions, four combinations — that's the whole grid.
22 terms, defined
Classical conditioning
Learning by association: a neutral stimulus becomes linked to a stimulus that already triggers an automatic response.
Example: Feeling hungry the instant you hear a microwave beep.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning.
Example: Food in the mouth causing salivation.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
The unlearned, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Salivating at the taste of food.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing, comes to trigger a learned response.
Example: The bell Pavlov rang before feeding the dogs.
Conditioned response (CR)
The learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
Example: The dog salivating at the bell alone, with no food present.
Acquisition
The initial stage of learning, when the association between two stimuli (or a behavior and a consequence) is first formed.
Example: The first several bell-then-food pairings, before the dog reliably salivates.
Extinction
The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response when the association is no longer reinforced.
Example: The bell ringing repeatedly with no food until the dog stops salivating.
Spontaneous recovery
The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period.
Example: A week after extinction, the dog salivates at the bell again — briefly.
Generalization
Responding the same way to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.
Example: A child afraid of one barking dog becoming afraid of all dogs.
Discrimination
Learning to respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus and not to similar ones.
Example: The dog salivating at Pavlov's bell but not at a doorbell.
Operant conditioning
Learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences.
Example: Taking the same route to work because it has consistently been fastest.
Positive reinforcement
Adding a desirable consequence to increase a behavior.
Example: Giving a dog a treat after it sits.
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant condition to increase a behavior. Still increases behavior — it is not punishment.
Example: Buckling your seatbelt to stop the car's beeping, so you buckle up faster next time.
Positive punishment
Adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease a behavior.
Example: Assigning extra chores after a curfew violation.
Negative punishment
Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior.
Example: Taking away phone privileges for a week.
Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations — steps that get closer and closer to the target behavior.
Example: Rewarding a rat first for facing the lever, then touching it, then pressing it.
Fixed-ratio schedule
Reinforcement delivered after a set number of responses. Produces a high, steady rate of responding.
Example: A coffee shop card that gives a free drink after every 10 purchases.
Variable-ratio schedule
Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. Produces the highest response rate and is the hardest to extinguish.
Example: Slot machines — which is exactly why they're so hard to walk away from.
Fixed-interval schedule
Reinforcement for the first response after a set amount of time. Produces a scalloped pattern of responding.
Example: Studying hard right before each scheduled Friday quiz and barely at all after it.
Variable-interval schedule
Reinforcement for the first response after unpredictable time intervals. Produces slow, steady responding.
Example: Checking your phone for a text that could arrive at any moment.
Observational learning
Learning by watching and imitating others rather than through direct consequences.
Example: Children in Bandura's Bobo doll study hitting the doll after seeing an adult do it.
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but isn't demonstrated until there's a reason to show it.
Example: Rats that wandered a maze with no reward suddenly running it perfectly once food appeared.
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